Côte d’Ivoire: A Complex Journey Through History and Identity
Researched and Written by Anabel Magers, Exchange Program Fellow 2024-2025
Introduction
Côte d’Ivoire (CIV) is a republic in western Africa situated just west of Ghana and east of Liberia and Guinea. It is the largest exporter of cocoa, and produces a substantial amount of gold yearly. CIV is rich with culture with an estimated 78 languages spoken. Félix Houphouët-Boigny, also known as the Ivorian Miracle, was the nation’s first president, and is credited with being one of the forefathers of West African decolonization.
CIV’s history is stained with colonialist ideals, multiple coups, corruption, ethnic tensions and a divisive national identity that still has a tangible effect on the nation’s happenings. The country has experienced two civil wars since the early 2000s, and both have been centered around the nation's presidential elections. These election cycles are divisive because many of the nation’s recent leaders have centered their campaigns around policies and appointments that would exclusively benefit ethnic groups in the southern part of the state.
Since gaining independence from France in 1960, Côte d'Ivoire has experienced multiple coups, civil wars, and ongoing struggles over national identity, shaping its political and social landscape. This article examines the key factors influencing the country's current political state and highlights the importance of understanding free and fair election processes for its democratic development.
The Evolution of Ivoirité
Ivoirité, originally meant to be a term of national pride, has evolved into a more divisive concept. During the term of the first president of CIV, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the word became popularly used to promote unity between many diverse ethnic groups that call Côte d’Ivoire home. However, after he died in 1993, his successor Henri Konan Bédié redefined Ivoirité to be more exclusive to northern Muslim groups. The term now refers to the southern Christian groups of CIV and is now most commonly used in divisive narratives that fueled social fragmentation.
Key Political Figures and Their Impact
Félix Houphouët-Boigny (1960-1993): Known as the "Ivorian Miracle," he maintained relative stability through ethnic quotas and inclusive governance. However, favoritism toward southern elites persisted during his time in office.
Henri Konan Bédié (1993-1999): Bédié institutionalized the exclusionary form of Ivoirité, notably through Article 35 of the constitution, which restricted presidential eligibility based on ethnic criteria. This targeted political rivals like Alassane Ouattara, intensifying north-south divisions.
Laurent Gbagbo (2000-2011): His presidency dismantled previous efforts to manage ethnic tensions. After refusing to concede the 2010 election to Ouattara, violence erupted, leading to his arrest by the International Criminal Court. He was acquitted in 2019.
Alassane Ouattara (2010-Present): Despite initial exclusion due to his northern heritage, Ouattara became president after Gbagbo's ousting. His tenure has seen economic growth but continued political tensions, especially after his controversial third-term bid in 2020.
Civil Wars and Political Turmoil
1999 Coup d’État: Triggered by political stagnation and ethnic grievances, military forces capitalized on the divisive nature of Ivoirité to justify the coup. The aftermath included two leaders refusing to secede office, and an election which only held voting stations in the south of the country, contributing to exclusionary tactics targeting northern Muslim communities.
First Civil War (2002-2007): The First Ivorian Civil war arose from the same ethnic tensions that were caused by the 1999 coup. In September of 2002 a group called Mouvement Patriotique pour la Côte d'Ivoire (MPCI) attacked military installations in both northern and southern cities. MPCI was composed mostly of Northerners, who were upset about Ivorian law becoming geared exclusively toward the success of southern Christians. They branded themselves as supporting equality for all Ivorians. Not long after the attacks, they controlled the northern part of the country. There is no clear ending for the First Ivorian Civil, but rather violence was reignited, into what is known as the Second Civil War.
Second Civil War (2010-2011): Following disputed election results, violence erupted between supporters of Gbagbo and Ouattara after both parties declared themselves victorious. There was a violent outbreak among supporters of both sides, with an estimate of about 3,000 deaths from the conflict. International intervention, including UN and ECOWAS forces, ultimately led to Gbagbo’s arrest and Ouattara’s presidency, which is used to mark the end of the second civil war.
The 2020 Election Crisis
Ouattara decided to run for a third term for the presidency for the 2020 election, despite stating in 2017 that he would step down from his political career. The announcement follows the death of his anointed and projected successor, Prime Minister Amadou Gon Coulibaly. The Côte d’Ivoire’s constitution reads, “The President of the Republic is elected for five years by direct universal suffrage. He may be re-elected only once.” During his second term, Ouattara amended some provisions of the constitution, but not the article stated above. Ouattara argues that because the constitution was amended, his term mandate restarted.
Opposition leaders, including Henri Konan Bédié, called upon civil disobedience to oppose Ouattara. In response to those protests, the state imposed government forces, which ultimately resulted in at least 85 civilian deaths. Ouattara encouraged his political opposition to call for dialogue instead of violence.
Since his election into president, the country has experienced economic growth that has positively affected social and economic disparities. Regardless, the peace in Côte d’Ivoire is still incredibly fragile. The country will be facing another election in October of 2025, that could potentially bring about another bout of violence in the country’s history of unrest.
Voter Turnout and Electoral Challenges
Election-related violence in Côte d’Ivoire has instilled fear within the minds of potential voters, suppressing voter turnout. Although civic duty motivates some members of disenfranchised communities, fear still stops some from showing at the polls. Efforts to ensure voter’s identities include biometric verification, specifically issued-voter identification cards, and a finger-printing ink that dyes the finger for about 10 days; all of these enterprises mitigate fraud, and attempt to disrupt intimidation efforts.
The Importance of Learning About Free and Fair Elections
The World Affairs Council of Kentucky and Southern Indiana helped facilitate visitor meetings with organizations and figures in the region that shared expertise. The backdrop of Côte d’Ivoire and their history of political exclusion and ethnic tensions teetering on a violent eruption during voting season demonstrates just how fragile peace can be when there is little trust in the election process. Through their meetings in Kentuckiana, delegates learned about impartial election oversight, transparency, and campaign accountability while also sharing their extensive voter verification procedures. The international visitors learned about how to implement procedures for creating an environment that promotes and maintains trust in the democratic process. This knowledge is just a step toward preventive political violence and building public trust in democratic processes, encouraging voter participation and promoting long-term political stability.
The group met with the Kentucky State Board of Elections & the Kentucky Registry of Election Finance as well as Jefferson County Clerk's Office & the Jefferson County Elections Center, among other Kentucky-based resources. Within these meetings, the resources shared Kentucky’s ballot security measures and how elections themselves are secured, including campaign laws near and within the polling location. In CIV, there are an equal number of supporters of each running party at the polling station. In Kentucky, the delegates learned why an equal number of party supporters are encouraged to work the polls, and that the poll workers must present non-partisan when they are at the polling stations.
“SCP Côte d'Ivoire - Free and Fair Process: Electoral Institution Knowledge Sharing” international visitors meet with the Jefferson County Clerk’s Office and participate in a voting simulator | Sept. 2024
During their time in Kentucky, the international visitors from CIV explored strategies for establishing procedures that foster and sustain trust in the democratic process. Gaining this knowledge is a meaningful advancement in preventing political violence, strengthening public confidence in democracy, encouraging voter participation, and promoting long-term political stability for the CIV.
Côte d’Ivoire’s landscape is painted with resilience, activism, resistance and the pursuit of unity. As the next election is only months away; anxieties and reminders of the past are at the front of voters’ minds. These lessons from previous conflicts remain critical in shaping a more representative and peaceful future. To see more photos of the international visitors from Côte d’Ivoire’s time in Kentucky, please click here.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Works Cited
Akan cosmology & history. ats coalition. (n.d.). https://www.atscoalition.org/akan-cosmology-history
Akindès, Francis. (2003). "Côte D’ivoire: Socio-political Crises, ‘Ivoirité’ and the Course of History." African Sociological Review, vol. 7, no. 2,, pp. 11–28. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43657700
Al Jazeera. Ivory Coast’s Alassane Ouattara sworn in for a disputed third term. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/14/ivory-coast-ouattara-sworn-in-for-disputed-third-term
Babo, A. (2017). Ivoirité and Citizenship in Ivory Coast: The Controversial Policy of Authenticity. In Citizenship in Question: Evidentiary Birthright and Statelessness. essay, Duke University. pp. 200-216
Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index (2019, January 28). Côte d’Ivoire. BTI 2024. https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-dashboard/CIV
Côte d’Ivoire Constitution. (2016). Title III. Chapter II. Article 55
Doumbia, Ayouba. Ethnic Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire. (2021). City College of New York, Master’s Thesis
Erameh, Nicholas Idris, and Ologe, Uzezi. (2021). "Côte D’Ivoire: Responsibility to Protect, Electoral Violence and the 2010 Crisis." Conflict Studies Quarterly, Issue 35, pp. 3-17. https://www.csq.ro/wp-content/uploads/1-Nicholas-Idris-ERAMEH-Uzezi-OLOGE.pdf
Gilbert, M., Lagacé, R. O., & Skoggard, I. A. (2000). Culture summary: Akan. HRAF. https://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/cultures/fe12/documents/000
Republic of côte d’ivoire. African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. (n.d.). https://achpr.au.int/en/member-states/cote-divoire#:~:text=In%20total%2C%20there%20are%20around,Catholics)%20and%20various%20indigenous%20religions
Van Baalen, S. (2023). Polls of fear? Electoral violence, incumbent strength, and voter turnout in Côte d’Ivoire. Journal of Peace Research, 61(4), 595-611. https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433221147938
Suggested Readings
Akindès, F. (2004). The roots of the military-political crises in Côte d'Ivoire. Nordic Africa Institute.
Boas, M. (2003). Weak states, strong regimes: The limits of statehood in Africa. Zed Books.
Crook, R. C. (1990). Politics, the cocoa crisis, and administration in Côte d'Ivoire. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 28(4), 649-669.
Kourouma, A. (2002). Waiting for the wild beasts to vote (F. Wynne, Trans.). Heinemann. (Original work published 1998)
Losch, B. (2002). Global restructuring and liberalization: Côte d'Ivoire and the end of the international cocoa market? Journal of Agrarian Change, 2(2), 206-227.
McGovern, M. (2011). Making war in Côte d'Ivoire. University of Chicago Press.
N’Guessan, K. (2015). History, memory, and the crisis of national reconciliation in Côte d'Ivoire. African Studies Review, 58(2), 61-83.
Zolberg, A. R. (1971). One-party government in the Ivory Coast. Princeton University Press.
If you wish to contact the author, Anabel Magers, or the supervisor and Exchange Program Manager, Toree Doll, please click the hyper links.
